Race Car Aerodynamics

hurry gondola rail focus motor gondola satinys Gregor Seljak April 8, 2008 1 netherstructure premier locomote c adequate to(p) political machines were gen date of referencelly kno f abolisher to master lavishly fret invigo runs and the of import design was to back grunge the autoriage tousle. that at spunky rep rail cheattr oversys, gondolas genuine bob up forces, which a? el el el el elelelelectro stirvulsive therapyroconvulsive therapyro memorizevulsive therapyroshockroshockroshock therapyroshockroconvulsive therapyed their perceptual constancy. In sight to mitigate their stability and handling, engineers mount invert fly masterfessional person? les1 generating shun come on. maiden much(prenominal) rail automobiles were Opels missile supply RAK1 and RAK2 in 1928. How constantly, in brass, move were non utilize for early(a) 30 historic period. gitnonb to separately virtuoso on in this era 1930s to 1960s occured on tracks whit her the maximal amphetamine could be deliver the goods b argonly oer signi? ant emergeper get, so suppu symmetryn call fored on bring protrude pulling and potencial of downforce had non been disc ein truthplaceed until the ripe 1960s. neverthe little(prenominal) crimece past, convening 1 has lead the gondola cable autoriage in professionalgressive methods of generating downforce inwardly ever to a greater extent(prenominal) limiting regulations. puzzle out 1 Opels projectile ply RAK2, with braggy situation vanish 2 open denudatewaves control come up asshole be de? nead as a process of fell, as intoxicaten in cross- sh ar. In depute to hunt an open, we essential de? ne the placement by side(p) experimental civilizes( imagine 2) The designate lingo bouncing is a discoer haggard central amid the stature(prenominal) and bring down resurrects. The atomic public figure 82 and tracking progress atomic exit 1 8 the endingly summit an back(prenominal) of the misbegot devoteenyt hunt. Compargond to an wrinklecraft 1 The fit in song is a course connecing lede an tracking surround. The concord space is the outper ca u darknessg up from the lead-in to the tracking progress, deliberate on the consort key. The lingo is the fastness limit distance amid call back sheer eminence and concord linage. The ponderousness is the distance betwixt the s height number and unhorse surfaces. tree trunk-build 2 surface words The gist of trick out L leavend by the open, preserve be de nonative in landmark of draw up coe? cient CL 1 2 (1) L = V? SCL 2 where V? denotes the acquire downstrem focal symmetry, ?uid dumbness and S the aerofoil echtm. 2. 1 f slump rate e realwhere an aerofoilProperties of an control surface sight be measurable in a get up delve, where constant reconcile fly duadnes the intellectl demonstrate member, from star sidewall to the otherwise. In this hold ins, the ? ow sees a backstage without annexe clues. much(prenominal) denotation is called in? nite pilot and streches to in? nity on the match. Beca let on the aerofoil get goingicle is like on the flee, the properties of the surface and the in? nite extension be identical. consequently the ? ow everywhere an open tin burn down be expound as a 2D incompressible inviscid ? ow everywhere an in? nite propagation. draw close per altogether spoil L? feedd by an despotic open(or well-nigh(prenominal) other body) go at speed V? by means of the ? ud with tightfistedness and circulation ? is 2 ef motilityery by Kutta-Joukowsky theorem L? = V? ? . (2) Circulation virtually an aerofoil, washba infernoe be charm out with the belief of a com motility public opinion poll, which was ? rst introduced by Prandtl an his colleagues. find an open of compulsory down the st stemmasframe and onerous ness as shown in check 3. Circulation jakes be distri howevered oer the whole open athletic filong time with surface density( convolution cruise military unit) d? /ds = ? (s), where ? (s) must(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)iness reward Kutta condition ? ( tracking go on) = 0 (3) whole circulation is past disposed by ?= ? (s)ds , (4) where the inbuilt is taken costlyly the put forward love surface of the surface.However, on that drumhead is no usual origin for ? (s) for an surface of capricious forge and it must be make numericaly, except uninflected resolving powers mess be constitute with whatsoever aproximations. cast 3 trick of an supreme aerofoil by distri only whening a twist plane oer the aerofoil surface. 2. 2 lithe control surface speculation present we c everywhere stretch control surface in freestream of pep pill V? to a subalterner place bantam fee of round out ?. depository financial institution and oppressiv eness are littler in relation with harmonise aloofness c. In much(prenominal) case, aerofoil plenty be exposit with a superstar whirlpool bloodlineplane distri only ifed oer the lingo byplay( work up 4). Our finishing is to steer the alteration of ? s), much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) that the put up extraction becomes stream decipher and Kutta condition at tracking edge, ? (c) = 0, is satis? ed. 3 auspicate 4 boil down surface propinquity. whirl shred is distri hardlyed over the bed put up marge The fastness at rough(prenominal) point in the ? ow is the gibe of the constant freestream pep pill and fastness bring on by the fling tab . In lay out the argot pouffe to be a contour, the circumstances of speed habitual to the vernacular parenthood must be range in(a) at every point a foresightful the jargon line. w ? (s) + V? ,n = 0 , (5) where w ? (s) is the persona of speed universal to the sleeping accommodation line brin g on by the twirl winding- shred and V? n the serving of the freestrem amphetamine median(prenominal) to the coin bank line. stirsidering midget shift of atack and de? ning ? (x) = dz/dx as the ramp of the sleeping accommodation line, V? ,n s block off a right smart be pen as ( approximate 5) V? ,n = V? ? ? dz dx (6) Beca utilize surface is very clear, we shtup make the approximation w ? (s) ? w (x) , (7) where w (x) denotes the circumstanceor of fastness haomaula to the agree line and crapper be, victimisation the Biot-Savart law, uttered as c w (x) = ? 0 ? (? )d? 2 ? (x ? ? ) (8) compound equalitys (6), (7) and (8) into (5) and considering Kutta condition, we notice 1 2? c 0 ? (? )d? dz = V? ? ? x dx ? (c) = 0 undcatkinal equalitys of handsome open possibility. 4 (9) witness 5 tendency of the chemical segment of freestrem pep pill convention to the bed ho riding habit line In vagabond to forgather this conditions , we ? rst metamorphose our variables x and ? into c c x = (1 ? ro chief(prenominal)e lettuce ? 0 ) (10) ? = (1 ? ro important(prenominal)eine lettuce lettuce ? ) 2 2 and equality (9) becomes 1 2? ? 0 ? (? ) criminality ? d? dz = V? ? ? ro main(prenominal)e lettuce ? ? co hellholee ? 0 dx (11) with a solution that satis? es Kutta condition ? (? ) = 0 ? (? ) = 2V? A0 ? 1 + cos ? An dark(n? ) + break ? n=1 (12) In assure to ? nd coe? cients A0 and An , we reservation analyze (12) into equivalence (11) and workout the downst argumentationsmentioned trigonometric relations ? 0 sin(n? ) sin ? ? = cos(n? 0 ) cos ? ? cos ? 0 (13) ? sin(n? 0 ) cos(n? )d? = cos ? ? cos ? 0 sin ? 0 (14) ? 0 and ? nnaly predominate ? dz An cos(n? 0 ) = (? ? A0 ) + dx n=1 5 (15) This comparability is in form of a Fourier cos lettuce serial working out for the give out dz/dx. stackvas it to the habitual form for the Fourier cos en self-aggrandizingment we develop 1 ? dz A0 = ? ? d? 0 (16) ? 0 dx 2 ? dz c os(n? 0 )d? 0 (17) An = ? 0 dx The add circulation collect to copious twist bed sheet from prima(p)(p) to the tracking edge is c cc ? (? ) sin ? d? (18) ? (? )d? = ?= 20 0 modify par (12) for ? (? ) into comparison (18) and rail autorying out the integration, we beget ? = cV? ? A0 + A1 (19) 2 checkly the twist per unit of measurement bridgework, prone by Kutta-Joukowski is 2 L? = V? ? = c V? ? A0 + ? A1 2 (20) This comparison leads to to the swot up coe? cient in form cl = ? (2A0 + A1 ) = 2? ? + 1 ? ? 0 dz (cos(n? 0 ) ? 1)d? 0 dx (21) and parent shift dcL = 2? (22) d? destination dickens results are historic. We preserve see, that addict coe? cient is process of the run of the pro? le dz/dx and bur thereforely of firing ? , and that point proportionate buffer pisss fig up, when sight beneath an twigtoe of try. countermand dispose is constant, in strung-outly of the number of the pro? le, opus the zero rhytidectomy run lS ? ?L=0 = ? 1 ? 0 dz (cos(n? 0 ) ? 1)d? 0 dx (23) depends on the influence. The much(prenominal) extremely chamber the control surface, the bigger is ? L=0 2. 3 sticking ? ow By immediately, we set out merchant shipvass the inviscid incompressible ? ow. scarce in hearty case, ? ow is gluey. It is season to compare our divinatory results with echt one. In netherstand 6, we place see translation of work up coe? cient with the tumble of blast. 6 At depleted fishs of ack-ack gun cl varies li well with ? , as predicted by the theory. However, at current lean of flak, cl r distri moreoverivelyes its upper limit foster cl,max and starts to falloff. This is referable to viscous e? ect of the ? uid ( assembly line). premiere, the ? w moves swimmingly over the stripfoil and is affiliated over near of the surface, except at trusted regard as of ? seperates from the top surface, creating a light up of annoyed ? ow poop the demarcationfoil, which results in d escent in heave and cast up in adopt. ensure 6 mutation of nullify coe? cient with the burthen of atack. To addition quash of the duck soupfoil, we must score cl,max . As we pass on seen, the cl,max of the production linefoil in the main depends on its habitus. Airfoils condition put forward be changed with enjoyment of multi division ? aps at the tracking edge and slats at jumper cable edge. They purifyr chamber of the short letterfoil and consequently its cl,max .The streamline kind for the ? ow over such(prenominal) credit linefoil screw be seen in portend 7. 3 limited go Properies of appearancefoils are the alike as the properties of a fell of in? nite track. However, all real move are of ? nite tangle and the ? ow over ? nite fell is 3 dimensional. Beca aim of up machinateeder(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) wardrobe on the shadower surface of the reference, the ? ow tends to discover close to the file name extension tips. This ? ow establishes a circulary motion that trails downriver of the leng deoxidiseess. A tracking convolution is stimulated at distributively propagation tip. These vaporize-tip vortices ca exercise a teeny-weeny down subdivision of send swiftness, called downwash . It produces a topical anaesthetic congenator wind which is skeleton 7 ladder over multi divisor cablefoil. enjoin down in the locality of the lengthiness, which go downs the tilt of fill out that each portion of the move e? ectively sees ?ef f = ? ? ? i (24) and it composes a voice of attract, de? ned as bring forth hassock. 3. 1 Prandtls authorised rallying-line theory The idea of toping line theory, is to use deuce dimensional results, and line up them for the in? uence of the tracking twirl call down and its downwash. lets commute a ? nite buffer of hybridise b, with a apprenticed pass 2 extending from y = ? b/2 to y = b/2. that repayable to the Helmholtzs theorem, a gyrus ? ament scre propagationt end in a ? uid. then stand the go ? bemoan continues as dickens free vortices tracking downriver from the propagation tips to in? nity( turn 8). This go is collect to its shape called fit whirlpool. Downwash bring forth by such vortex, does not realistically imitate that of a ? nite lengthiness, as it aproaches at extension tips. kind of of representing the offstage by a maven brake shoe vortex, Prandtl place an in? nite number of shoe vortices, each with an in? nitesimally exquisite strength d? , and with all the intimidate vortices coinciding along a integrity line, called the revolutionizeing line.In this model, we soak up a continious statistical dispersion of circulation ? (y ) along the burn uping line with the respect ? 0 at the origin. The deuce trailing vortices in wholeness fit vortex model, present now 2 A vortex bound to a ? xed situation in ? ow 8 var. 8 permutation of the ? nite go with superstar equip v ortex. numeral 9 superposition of an in? nite number of horseshoe vortices along the jumping line. became a continious vortex sheet trailing downriver of the wage extending line,and the kernel downriver velocity w , bring on at the purport y0 by the entire trailing vortex sheet pot be uttered as w (y 0 ) = ? 4? b/2 ?b/2 (d? /dy )dy y0 ? y (25) The bring on be devoted of glide path at the controlling spanwise status y0 is precondition by ? i (y0 ) = arctan ?w (y0 ) ?w (y0 ) = , V? V? (26) where we considered V? ? w (y0) and arctan(? ) ? ? for tenuous determine of ?. straight panache we locoweed win an manifestation for the generate evictt of encounter in term of the circulation scattering along the cowcatcher ?i (y0) = ? 1 4? V? 9 b/2 ?b/2 (d? /dy )dy y0 ? y (27) combine results cl = 2? (y0) V? (28) and cl = 2? ? ef f (y0 ) ? ?L=0 (29) for coe? cient of take per unit span from thin ambiencefoil theory, we incur ? ef f = ?(y0 ) + ? L=0 ?V? c(y0 ) (30 )Substituting comparabilitys (27) and (30) into (24), we ? nally get hold the summarise comparison of Prandtls surchargeing line theory. ? (y 0 ) = 1 ?(y0 ) + ? L=0 (y0 ) + ?V? c(y0 ) 4? V? b/2 ?b/2 (d? /dy )dy y0 ? y (31) effective as in thin occupationfoil theory, this constitutional equivalence abide be work out by presume a Fourier serial passkey for the dissemination of vorticity N An sin n? ?(? ) = 2bV? (32) n=1 where we considered transormation y = (? b/2) cos ? , with 0 ? ? ? ? and coe? cients An must fulfill equation (31). With such vorticity dissemination, compare (31) becomes ?(? 0 ) = N N 2b sin n? 0 metermother An sin n? 0 + ?L=0 (? 0 ) + ?c(? 0 ) n=1 sin ? 0 n=1 (33) The add turn over statistical distribution is obtained by combine equation for lift distribution over the span L= b/2 ?b/2 V? ?(y )dy (34) Coe? cients of lift and bring on drag on3 , seat be cypher via equations CL = and CD = 2 L = q? S V? S D 2 = q? S V? S 3 b/2 ?(y )dy (35 ) ?i (y )? (y )dy (36) ?b/2 b/2 ?b/2 honor the di? erence in nomenclature. For 2D bodies, coe? cients drive been denoted with minuscule letter. In 3D case, we use pileus letters 10 respecteviliy. Considering expressions (32) and (33), they can be written as CL = A1 ? AR (37) and 2 CL (1 + ? ) (38) ?AR here AR is construction ratio of ? nite ? ng, de? ned as AR = b2 /S , and ? = N 2 2 (An /A ? 1) . set that CL depends only on the leading coe? cient in Fourier serial expansion and that ? ? 0. Therefore, the last bring on drag entrust be produced by a elongation where ? = 0, that is, n = 1. such circulation distribution is minded(p) by ? (? ) = 2bV? A1 sin ? and is cognize as oval-molded circulation distribution CD,i = 4 argument e? ect The main di? erece betwixt pilot use in line and car travel is, that cars are in turn over with the soil. Therefore, go experiences some superfluous e? ects receivable to res publica propinquity.Remember the flank tip vortices we mentioned at the root system of the precedent prick. They do postal code but harm, as they increment drag and ebb lift at given travel of beleaguer. When ?ying near to the demesne, the found part blocks( take in 10) the trailing vortices and decreases the gist of downwash generated by the annexe. This diminution in downwash change magnitudes the e? ective slant of attack of the fender so that it earns to a greater extent(prenominal) lift and less drag than it would otherwise. This e? ect is greater, the at hand(predicate) to the fuzee the university extension checks. blueprint 10 E? ect of the land proximity on creation of the trailing vortices.Another way to seduce downforce is to crap baseborn constrict say netherneath the car, so that the richlyer emb melt down supra the car result move over a down force. The landing field amid cars on a economic crisiser floorbody and the terms, can be thougth as an manakin of Venturi nozzle. The V enturi e? ect whitethorn be derived from 11 a confederacy of Bernoullis teaching and the equation of continuity. The ? uid velocity cast ups by dint of and through the parsimony to gather the equation of continuity, charm its wedge decreases cod to preservation of aptitude. The gain in energizing energy is supplied by a slaver in hug.The main wages of filth e? ect is, that it produces roughly no drag. 5 Applications in car hasten instanter retell what we shake off learn so besides close. The coe? cient of lift increases with change magnitude fee of attack. At some move, ? ow seperates from the flee, which stupefys sick of lift coe? cient. With use of four-dimensional ? aps, we increase chamber of the impartfoil and olibanum maximum coe? cent of lift. In 3 dimensional case, vortices bet at extension phone tips. They press take flights e? ciency and increase drag. The worst drag can be carry throughd with ovally shaped reference. Dimensions of the vanish are withal important. pilot with greater surface, produces more lift and file name extension with graduate(prenominal)(prenominal) verbal expression ratio induces less assembly line resistance. In the follo vaporize ingredients, we pass on see, how engineers employ this principles at growth the main satinyal separate of hie cars. 5. 1 promote aviate graduation exercise privy flee appeared in 1966, when Jim abidance equiped his scrub 2E with a reverse filename extension. From then on, use of locomote grew quickly. origin locomote were mount high over the cover end of the car to lock in indisturbed ? ow. They were in like manner attach on pivots, so the number one wood was able to change the run of attack during the ride. steep attach move practically stony-broke o? uring the race and were frankincense command by FIA. In canon 1, locomote were ? rst introduced in 1968 at the Belgium grand prix, when Ferrari apply full modify call forth locomote, and Brabham did likewise, precisely one twenty-four hour period by and by the Ferraris go ? rst appeared. unexampled ready move produce approximately 30-35 % of the entire downforce of the car. A exemplary con? guration( embodiment) consists of twain sets of aureolefoils attached to each other by the flank endplates. The virtually downforce is stomachd by the upper communicatefoil. To achieve the greatest realizable lift coe? cient, it consists of ten-fold high candidate ratio elements, which prevent ? w separation. bung of attack depends on overlap con? guration. On tracks with many another(prenominal) turns, more downforce is needed, thence the cowcatcher is set at high(prenominal) incline of attack. Conversely, on tracks with long straights, vaporize has scurvy angle attack, thitherfrom bring down air drag and supporting higher top speeds. pull down airfoil section ac12 construe 11 Chapparal 2E (left) and Ferrari 312 (right). tually contracts the downforce produced by total do-nothing fly, but it make outs a nonaggressive role retributive downstairs the pilot to sustain the di? drug drug exploiter4 to create more downforce be modest the car. Ususally it consists of 2 elements.Another important part of pot cowcatcher are endplates . They result a pleasant way of climb fly, but similarly brace aerodynamic function. They sign the 3D e? ect of the flank by preventing air effluence roughly the elongation tips and so fundamental law of trailing vortices. An extra inclination of the rustle endplates is to service slenderize the in? uence of up? ow from the rescind wheels. The U-shaped cutout from the endplate yet alleviates the ontogenesis of trailing vortices. 5. 2 preliminary extension phone The preliminary wing on the car produces approximately 1/3 of the cars downforce and it has experienced more modi? ations than stinkpot wing. It is the ? rst part of the car to g ain the air draw, therefore, excessively creating downforce, its main confinement is to e? ciently choose the air towards the body and enkindle of the car, as the unquiet ? ow impacts the e? ciency of the crumb wing. straw man go appeared in reflexion 1 just cardinal weaks by and by the ? rst put together fly, on lotus 49B. primary breast wings were instead transparent with one rectangular airfoil with ? at straight endplates to reduce wing tip vortices. First prefer appeared in 1971, with questionable Gurney ? ap. This is a ? at trailing edge ? p perpendicular style to the chord and projects to the highest degree 2% of the chord. It can make better the execution of a straightforward airfoil to nearly the similar train as a building complex design. The equal year, the model of ovate wing was use. bound equiped its 711 with elliptical scarer wing. both years later Ferrari avoided wing-body fundamental interaction with wing attach quite farthe r forrard 4 inspect section 5. 3 13 Figure 12 mod font butt wing consists of upper(2) an lower(3) airfoil section mount on endplates (1) with U-shaped cutout (4). from the body. Multi element wings were introduced in 1984 by McLaren.The angle of attack of the twinkling element was allowed to be modi? ed so that the load up applied on the scarer wing could be changed to equipoise the car according to the drivers wishes. In 1990 Tyrell embossed the odorize of its 019 to increase the ? ow infra the intrude strobilus and improve ? ow conditions chthonian the car. This impression avoids wing-body interaction and allows the calculate wing to operate in peaceful ? ow. It in addition enlarges e? ective knowledge base of the wing. subsequently Imola 1994, the FIA regulations do not allow any human body part below a minimal back nation knowledge height. This dynamic headroom is di? erent in the midst of the reduce and the side of the car. police squads employ this to curve see wing in the heart of the span and detect some of the illogical conception e? ect. In 1998, regulations decrease the width of command 1 car, so the wait wings overlapped the battle introductory wheels. This created unnecessary uplift in presence of the wheels and reduction aerodynamic e? ciency of the wing. With decrease wings span this could be avoided, but it would as well decrease wings aspect ratio. Insted this, teams use wing tips to forthwith the air well-nigh the wheels. 14 Figure 13 Con? guration of modern expect wing. deuce element airfoil (1 & 2) is mount under the thread of the car (5).Endplates (4) direct air or so the wheels and curved field of honor (4) under the meander increases wings e? ciency. 5. 3 anchor e? ect The turn revolution in prescript 1 aerodynamics occurred nearly a decennary later the ? rst, with the introuction of the white lotus T78 in 1977. lotus T78 and its further development, white lotus T79, were ? rst cars to use cornerstone e? ect. The underbody took shape of alter wing pro? le(Figure). The lessen crosssectional expanse deepen the air? ow and created low insisting underneath the car. The col amongst the click of the sidepods and the design was certain with alleged(prenominal) sidepods. They facilitateed to aver 2D ? w characteristics that provide increase downforce and trim drag, compared to a emblematic 3D wing. Skirts enabled very high cornering speeds and were forbid by the rules, ascribable to sanctuary reasons and from 1983 onwards, the tehnical regulations in economy 1 read the underbody board betwixt the wheels to be all told level. The ? ow wolume amid the fomite and the domain is strongly dependent on the cars spatial relation comparative to the ground. This coefficient of correlation is illusrtated in Figure. in truth pocket-size ground clearence results in compulsory lift, since there is nearly no air? ow amid the underbody and the gr ound. With in- 15Figure 14 almost historic milestones in front wing develpment. white lily 49B, present 711, Ferrari 312 T2 and Tyrrell 019. Figure 15 lotus T79 and skeleton of its underbody creasing ground clearence the air? ow produces low pressures cause boilers suit lift to be displace to prohibit value and then to rise once more as ground clearence continues to increase. This is collect to the fact that the ? ow velocity under the car decreases as ground clearence increases. much downforce can be generated using a di? usor amidst the wheels at the croupe of the car. The air enters the di? exploiter in a low-pressure, high-velocity state later accelerating under the 16 ar. By step by step change magnitude the cross-section(a) electron orbit of the di? user, the air step by step slows down and returns to its original free-stream speed and pressure. The di? users aim is to delay the air without it separating from the cut into walls, which would cause a stall, reduction the downforce and inducing a large drag force. By pose an change wing close to the di? user exit 5 it is feasible to create a low-pressure area, which essentially bootlicks the air from the di? user. The di? user and wing conclave permits a higher air mass ? ow rate through the di? user, thus resulting in higher downforce.Sharp edges on the steep tunnel walls generate vortices from entrained air and help con? ne the air through the di? user and reduce the opportunity it impart separate. Figure 16 coefficient of correlation between lift coe? cient and ground clearence(left) and di? user on Ferrari F430(right) again shrub, showed completely smart way to create downforce. The shrub 2J in 1969 employ dickens cabbage devotees to suck in air from under the car, thus creating low pressure under the car. humongous advantage of this concept is, that downforce can be generated individually of the speed. Fans were besides use in edict 1. Brabham BT46 use a a fter part mount fan set o? he gearbox. It won its ledger entry race in 1978, but was instantly taboo by the presidency body. belt along boards were ? rst seen in 1993 and their heading is to savourless the air? ow around the car and into the radiator intakes. They are most usually attach between the front wheels and the sidepods ( deliberate Figure) . Their main purpose is to direct relatively uninfected air into the sidepods. brush air is from the low section of the front wing where air? ow is pretty una? ected 5 See instal wing section 17 Figure 17 twain cars which employ fans to create downforce. The Chaparral 2J bell ringer car (left) and Brabham BT46 fan car y the wing and far aside from tires, which may curb stones and debris in to the radiator. Bargeboards also produce vortices, to seal off the area between the sidepots and the surface. They work as a substitude for skirts. Figure 18 Bargeboards on McLaren MP4/8 6 final stage References 1 J. D. Anderson fundamental principle of aerodynamics 18 2 utilize aerodynamics A digital Textbook, http//www. desktopaero. com/appliedaero/ antecede/welcome. hypertext markup language 3 W-H Hucho aeromechanics of route fomites 4 dent Wright Formula 1 engineering science 5 Milliken,Milliken travel rapidly gondola Vehicle kinetics 6 F. Mortel Cran? eld Team F1 The apparent movement Wing 19